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In recent times, the threat of privacy invasions has spread far beyond domestic governmental agencies, but to also include foreign and international governments. Do you travel outside of the United States? Do you travel with electronic devices, such as a cellphone or laptop? Do these devices hold any sensitive information, such as passwords or confidential communications? If yes, then your electronic privacy may be compromised when you travel abroad.

What Is the Threat to Privacy Abroad?

The simple truth is that border patrol agents in countries around the world take data from cellphones, laptops, and other electronic devices as tourists cross their borders. This data can include, but is certainly not limited to, passwords, files, and emails. Although, this is a common practice around the world, most tourists have no idea that their personal information becomes increasingly more vulnerable to invasions of privacy when they leave the United States. Indeed, the threat extends to hotels that may extract information from electronic devices through their free wireless systems.

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On August 14, 2013, the FBI confirmed its investigation regarding a sextortion case involving several women, including the recently-crowned Miss Teen USA, Cassidy Wolf. While the FBI did not release any information regarding the investigation or potential suspects, they did say the investigation has been going on for several months. Do you store personal information and photographs on your computer? Do you or your children use computers with webcam capabilities? If so, you might be at risk for cyber-stalking and sextortion. At the Law Offices of Salar Atrizadeh, an attorney with experience and knowledge in the most recent cyberspace law can help you learn how to protect yourself against cyber attacks such as these.

What Is the Extent of the Sextortion Threat In the Community?

Cassidy Wolf had said in an interview that she had received an email from an anonymous source who claimed to have nude pictures of her. The anonymous source then attempted to extort her, threatening to make the pictures public otherwise. Apparently, a hacker was able to break into Cassidy Wolf’s computer, turn on her webcam, and take pictures of her. For Miss Wolf, this controversy came after the hacker cyber-stalked her through her computer.

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The Federal Trade Commission proposed a revision to the federal Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (“COPPA”), which became effective as of July 1, 2013. As the FTC and state attorneys become increasingly stricter with online child protection standards, this rule will mean that online activity will be monitored more closely for inappropriate material. Indeed, this new rule has expanded what inappropriate material entails. Do you have a child with access to the internet? Are you a business entity that collects user information over the internet for marketing purposes? In both cases, this new rule may apply to your activities.

What Does the New Rule Add to COPPA?

First, the new rule substantially expands the meaning of “personal information.” Prior to this revision, personal information applied to an online user’s name, physical address, email address, telephone number, and social security number. However, the revision expands this category to include significantly more information. Online contact information will now include identifiers for instant messaging, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), and video chat users. Additionally, online screen names will now be considered “contact information” because such information may be used to locate minors on the web. To this same effect, any online information that can help locate the physical address of a minor will constitute “personal information.” This information will include photographs, videos, and audio files that contain a child’s picture or voice. It will also include information such as an Internet Protocol address (“IP address”) or mobile device identification names, since they can help locate users as well. Indeed, any information that configures with geographic locations, such as street names and cities, will constitute “personal information.” The rule also limits the extent to which companies that gather “personal information” from minors can share this information with third parties.

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Patent law reform has recently moved to the forefront of the federal legislation calendar as the country calls on Congress to protect inventors and consumers from intellectual property trolls (“IP trolls”). IP trolls may also be known as patent assertion entities. These IP trolls include individuals or entities that do not necessarily generate innovations themselves, but rather buy and hold patents, copyrights, or trademarks. Then, the IP trolls instigate infringement litigation against parties who use the otherwise idle intellectual property. Are you in litigation against an IP troll for alleged infringement? Do you have a non-active patent that may interest IP trolls? At the Law Offices of Salar Atrizadeh, an attorney with experience and knowledge in intellectual property law and infringement litigation can help you understand your legal rights and remedies.

What Are the Negative Effects of Intellectual Property Trolls?

IP trolls target idle intellectual property and file lawsuits, which the majority of consumers find to be frivolous and unjustified (i.e. lacking any merit or good-faith cause to sue). Recently, President Obama signed the America Invents Act (“AIA”) into law in an effort to protect against such frivolous litigation. The AIA is the first attempt by the federal government to curtail intellectual property claims by such IP trolls. For example, the AIA requires that IP trolls file individual actions for infringement, rather than a single action against multiple defendants. This requirement will substantially increase the cost of litigation for IP trolls, and, perhaps hinder them entirely. Indeed, some cases may reach extremely high litigation costs. For example, MPHJ Technology Investments, LLC, a Texas-based patent-licensing company, recently sued consumers for scanning any document to send by email. MPHJ sent consumers letters demanding $1,200 to cover the cost of wrongfully scanning documents, which they claim to be a patented process calling for royalties (i.e., payments to the patent holder for using the patented technology). Otherwise, MPHJ threatened the consumers with litigation. A complaint filed in a Vermont state court aims to protect consumers from such patent troll litigation in the first lawsuit of this kind.

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As part of California’s laws against unfair competition, the state provides a remedy to businesses that are victims of trade libel. Trade libel constitutes published false communications regarding the quality of services of products that a business provides, resulting in financial loss to this business. Are you a victim of false representations regarding your products or services? Have you sustained financial damages as a result of these false representations? If you answered “yes” to either question, you may have a claim for trade libel against these false representations! At the Law Offices of Salar Atrizadeh, an attorney with experience and knowledge in business law and trade libel suits can help guide you through the legal remedies.

What Are the Necessary Elements of a Trade Libel Suit?

To maintain a suit for trade libel, a plaintiff must first prove that another party published a false statement. A published statement is not limited to a printed book. Indeed, “published” can include anything from communications over the internet to advertisements. While the specifics of what constitutes “published” is a controversial area of law, courts will generally find that if a third party has access to a communication, that statement is deemed published. Such a communication can be either written or spoken to satisfy this requirement. Next, the statement must actually be false. If a defendant makes a statement about a business that results in financial damages, the business cannot file a lawsuit if the statement was true. Additionally, the defendant must know that the statement is false. While there are remedies available if a defendant negligently makes statements that cause financial harm to a business, to maintain an action for trade libel, the defendant must knowingly make the false statement. The false statement must also cause financial loss to the business. Such a loss can include a loss of reputation if the business can establish that the reputational decline will lead to a loss of future business, and as such, a future financial loss. Finally, a person making a false statement must intend to communicate the statement as a fact, not merely as an opinion. Therefore, a customer who expresses an opinion that a business provides a service of a poor quality is not subject to a trade libel suit.

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In general, subletting your apartment is a great way to save the cost of rent when you leave for a period of time–for example, to go on vacation or study abroad. However, subletting your apartment without considering the legal implications or local requirements can lead to a legal nightmare. At the Law Offices of Salar Atrizadeh, an attorney with knowledge and expertise in real property litigation and transactions can review applicable real property law with you and ensure that subletting your apartment is in your best interest

What Should I Do Before Subleasing My Apartment?

First, it is important to make sure that the area you live in allows for subletting and short-term leases. In some cities, such as New York City, it is illegal to rent for shorter than 30 days. California allows for subleases, unless a rental agreement specifically prohibits subleasing. To avoid future legal conflicts, make sure to check with your landlord to ensure the lease agreement allows for subleases. Additionally, it helps to consult an attorney who can review the law that applies in your area so you are aware of your rights and responsibilities under a sublease agreement. Even after you sublet your apartment, you are still responsible to your landlord for the property. For instance, if a subtenant causes damage to the property the landlord can initiate a lawsuit against you to collect a judgment for the cost of the damages. Therefore, it is in your best interest to make sure that the subtenant is a reliable tenant. As such, it is a good idea to ask for a security deposit. This way, if a subtenant does damage the property you have the authority to keep the deposit to cover any maintenance or repairs.

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In April 2012, President Obama and the United States Congress signed the JOBS Act into law. The Jumpstart Our Business Startups (“JOBS”) Act goes a long way towards accelerating and promoting crowdfunding. Crowdfunding is the practice of raising capital for a project or business by seeking small amounts of money from several individuals or small groups. Do you operate a small business? Are you looking for new ways to gather revenue for your growth and development? Are you an individual investor looking for your next investment project? If you answered “yes” to any of these questions, then the 2012 JOBS Act allows you to redefine your approach to future investments and business.

How Will the JOBS Act Change How Small Businesses Operate?

Since the JOBS Act passed into law, crowdfunding has increased through platforms such as Kickstarter, Indiegogo, and Fundable. These platforms have helped launch all sorts of small businesses, including startup companies, film projects, music projects, and non-profit organizations. Crowdfunding has essentially redefined traditional notions of how small businesses gather funds to support projects and growth. As such, in order to take advantage of this new opportunity, small businesses must learn to market their operations and projects to the masses. Reaching a wide array of people helps these businesses appeal to the individual investors who participate in crowdfunded business. Successful crowdfunding requires a small business to establish and maintain supporters at all stages of a project or throughout the course of a company.

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As of January 1, 2012, under California Corporations Code §§ 2500-3503, traditional business corporations may organize as “Flexible Purpose Corporations.” Whereas previously, corporate directors were bound to manage corporations strictly for economic gain, this new organizational model grants directors the freedom to manage the corporation for social and environmental benefits. This gives corporations the opportunity to organize and operate as socially-aware entities, while preserving their right to maintain a for-profit operation.

What Are the Advantages of Flexible Purpose Corporations?

To qualify as a flexible purpose corporation, a company must operate so as to have a positive effect on one of the following: the community, society, environment, its employers, customers, creditors, or suppliers. Flexible Purpose Corporations also maintain greater freedom because in certain circumstances the company can waive out of extensive annual reporting requirements. Supporters of flexible purpose corporations explain that serving as a shareholder for such a corporation is increasingly beneficial because such shareholders are able to embrace the rewards of serving a greater societal interest.

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The Internet has become an expansive worldwide network and users have the freedom to access this network from multiple devices and locations. In light of this growing network, many forms of commerce have also moved to the Internet. E-commerce or commercial transactions that take place over the Internet, have become a growing part of international markets and businesses. However, this growing market has also led to the proliferation of online fraud. In addition, by gaining access to this worldwide network, also referred to as the Internet, online fraud is able to harm users and markets on a larger scale.

What Factors Indicate Online Fraud?

In order to begin to prevent online fraud with e-commerce, it is important to be able to recognize online fraud. There are certain indicators that can help online consumers recognize fraudulent activity. First, multiple orders within the same day, hour, or minute from the same user, address, or credit card will generally point to fraudulent activity. Also, shipping addresses to suspicious locations, such as abandoned buildings or P.O. boxes, may be indicators of fraudulent activity. Anonymous email accounts associated with online users placing purchases indicate a higher likelihood of online fraud. These indicators do not necessarily suggest that the online activity is absolutely fraud. Instead, these indicators help protect online consumers by arming them with early signs that can help prevent future harm.

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The U.S. Copyright Act, codified under 17 U.S.C. § 101 et seq., protects copyrighted works from infringement from wrongful users. This federal law aims to protect unique works while still allowing for creativity and future creations. To that end, individuals charged with copyright infringement can avoid liability entirely under a valid fair use defense. The fair use exception, which is codified under 17 U.S.C. § 107, provides that instances of work that fall within this exception do not constitute infringement.

How Do Courts Apply the Fair Use Exception?

Since courts have not adopted a test or set of factors to determine when the fair use defense applies, judges will look to the totality of circumstances on a case-by-case basis to determine whether the defense is appropriate. This exception allows the courts to avoid applying the statute so strictly that it prevents creativity. In Religious Technology Center v. Netcom On-Line Communication Services, Inc., the United States District Court for the Northern District of California found the fair use exception applies when a work is used for “criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship or research.” Under the fair use exception, courts must consider the following factors: (1) purpose and character of the use; (2) nature of the work; (3) amount of the work used in comparison to the entire work; and (4) effect of the use on the potential value of the work. However, this is not a total list of considerations and courts will often look to any unique factors that affect the outcome of the case.

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